Spektrum Iran

Abstract At the beginning of his academic career, the German Protestant theologian Friedrich August Gottreu Tholuck published two fundamental works on Sufism or Islamic mysticism in addition to a number of theological writings. In 1821: Sufismus sive Theosophia Persarum Pantheistica quam e MSS. Bibliothecae regiae Berolinensis Persicis, Arabicis, Turcicis eruit atque illustravit and 1825: Blütensammlung aus der morgenländischen Mystik: nebst einer Einführung über Mystik allgemein und Morgenländische innesonder. In the introduction to the collection of flowers, Tholuck first explains what mysticism is in general and then what Islamic mysticism is in particular, and then compares Islamic mysticism with the Christian faith. In doing so, he finds both similarities and differences. A large part of the flower collection also contains his translations of Persian mystical poems. Before these connections are examined and presented in detail in the following, a brief overview of Tholuck's life and work is given.

Abstract The series of religious founders begins with Zarathustra, the founder of ancient Zoroastrianism, which still has devout followers today, such as the Parsis. This essay attempts to place Zarathustra on an equal footing with other religious founders, highlighting some commonalities with other religious figures while also emphasizing his unique characteristics. Numerous legends surround his person and his work. This article aims to uncover the true essence of his message beyond all myths. Zarathustra is considered the founder of monotheism, which influenced Judaism and was subsequently modified in Christianity and Islam. The essay also serves as a methodological examination of the extent to which Zarathustra can be compared to other religious founders and whether Zoroastrianism can be classified as a world religion on this basis.

Abstract In Germany, as in Iran, all literary works in which war is addressed are traditionally counted as "war literature"; however, it is very doubtful whether this can provide a picture of the attitudes of the authors of literary war books to the phenomenon of "war". The fact that, in addition to the term "war literature", terms such as "anti-war literature" (in Germany) and "literature of holy defence" (in Iran) have also become established shows that the essence of literary war books can only be done justice if they are evaluated and subsumed against the background of their authors' attitudes towards war. The establishment of the term "anti-war literature" alongside the term "war literature" in Germany is due to different attitudes of the authors of literary war works to war, while in Iran the term "war literature" is used sporadically and due to (almost) uniform attitudes of war writers to war, another widely used term, namely "the literature of holy defense", is preferred. Against the backdrop of Ernst Jünger’s and Hamidreza Taleghani’s attitudes towards war—Jünger as a representative of German war literature and Taleghani of the literature of the Holy Defense in Iran—this article aims to crystallize and justify the characteristics of war literature and the literature of the Holy Defense through a comparative study, highlighting that their authors' differing perspectives on war necessitate a distinct categorization of their
works.

Abstract This summary, drawn from various chapters and reports, provides a comprehensive depiction of the Safavid era in Iran and its impact on religious culture, society, and daily life. The establishment of the Safavid government in the 16th century laid the foundation for a new era in Iran characterized by political stability and religious tolerance. European travelers Olearius and Kaempfer played a crucial role in conveying the image of Iran to Europe, leading to a broader understanding of Iranian culture and religion. Religious culture was deeply embedded in the daily lives of people, influencing burial rituals, educational institutions, and religious festivals and ceremonies. The connection between religion, society, and politics was strong, with religious authorities playing significant roles in administration and the legal system. The diversity of religious practices and beliefs was reflected in reports on superstition, astrology, and social norms. These reports also highlighted the tensions and differences between various religious groups, particularly between Shiites and Sunnis, as well as the relationship between Christianity and Safavid Iran. These relationships were shaped by religious differences, political influences, and social norms. Overall, the reports by Olearius and Kaempfer underscore the deep connection between religion and culture in the Safavid era and how it influenced societal life and the perception of Iran in Europe. This comprehensive depiction contributes to a better understanding of this historical period and lays the groundwork for further investigations into German Orientalism and religious culture in Safavid Iran.

Abstract The renowned Iranian scholar Allameh Tabatabai (1892-1981) left behind a profound body of work that intersects various fields of the humanities. Grounded in his Quranic understanding of humanity as a social being, his writings consistently engage with social themes, seeking to explain the origins and development of human societies. Social issues and aspects of collective identity occupy a significant place in his thought. In sociology, the focus is on explaining societal processes and social change. However, this discipline remains largely Eurocentric and often neglects sociological perspectives outside of Europe and North America. This article aims to highlight the sociological thinking of Allameh Tabatabai, a major Iranian scholar, and introduce it to Western audiences where his work is still relatively unknown. Drawing primarily from his German-translated works such as "ABC des Islam" and "Die Schia im Islam," as well as his Quranic commentary "Al-Mizan," this study introduces Tabatabai's anthropological views and examines his perspectives on social themes. It explores his unique insights into the nature of human society's origins and development based on Quranic principles, addressing questions of historical philosophy and the role of progress in his thought .

Abstract The present article pursues two primary objectives. Firstly, it aims to review the existing literature and conceptualize an approach to understanding the dynamics of religion and peacebuilding from a religious studies perspective. This involves exploring essentialist and functionalist views, integrating sociocultural theories, and employing Ninian Smart’s dimensional model of religion to provide a comprehensive framework for analysis. By doing so, the article emphasizes the significance of studying peacebuilding through its association with religion not merely as a static set of beliefs but as a dynamic cultural system deeply embedded in social practices and interactions. Secondly, the article seeks to analyze how religion serves as a resource for promoting conviviality, which encompasses mutual respect, cooperation, and peaceful coexistence within diverse communities. Using Smart’s dimensional model, the study examines specific dimensions of religion, i.e. doctrinal, ritual, mythic, experiential, ethical, social, and material, and demonstrates how these aspects contribute to fostering a culture of peace and cooperation. This dual approach not only enriches the theoretical understanding of religion’s role in peacebuilding but also provides practical insights into leveraging religious resources for enhancing social harmony and resilience.

Abstract This article aims regarding today's globally massive movements of immigration to explore the conception of pluralism in the tradition of liberalism. To do so, it draws on sociological concepts, such as flows and fluids capturing newly developed relations at the global level, to confine the problem and formulate its questions. Using these conceptions, it addresses also shortages in the understanding of pluralism in two influential theory formations, respectively, "liberal-egalitarianism" (Rawls), and "deliberative democracy" (Habermas). It discusses that Rawls' notion of pluralism neglects the consequences of a globalized world of immigrants. By the same token, it argues that Habermas' solutions for a "world democracy" in the face of the dynamized conditions and acceleration of global migration remain vulnerable. Another Harbermas idea suggestion, namely, developing and granting the basic human rights of immigrants and other marginalized based on “human dignity”, is argued that, provides no way for meaningful and established involvement in the host society. The concept of “experimental pluralism” that proposed by John Dewey and recently developed by Rahel Jäggi in purview of critical theory, this article suggests as an alternative solution and actualizes it by proposing three criteria of inclusion, accessibility, and permanent critique as features of “experimental pluralism” in the context of new forming world of flows and fluidities. Finally, by giving an example, makes this article its discussions sociologically sensitive.

Abstract This study describes, analyzes, and compares two approaches to justice by referring to two famous texts in Islamic ethics: the Qushayriyyah treatise and Naseri ethics. In the first approach, attributed to Qushayri, the centrality of justice is given to individuals trained in an ethical context, who primarily focus on spiritual vigilance in collective life. In this approach, attaining individual perfection necessitates attention to fellow human beings, and the ethical individual, characterized by qualities such as patience, magnanimity, and freedom, supports others within society while safeguarding religious boundaries. In contrast, Khwaja Nasir's approach, based on a comprehensive Platonic-Aristotelian framework, emphasizes both individual and social dimensions of ethics. In this view, individual justice, once fully realized, provides the foundation for the rule of a just person and, consequently, the systematic realization of social justice. At first glance, Khwaja Nasir's wise perspective appears superior to Qushayri's mystical individual-centered approach due to its comprehensiveness and practical applicability. However, the preference for Khwaja Nasir's approach is challenged by the separation of law from ethics, as posited by later studies in moral philosophy.

Abstract The concept of becoming godlike, rooted in Plotinus' philosophical framework, has inspired discussions throughout history, resonating in the works of subsequent thinkers such as Mulla Sadra. Plotinus posits that humanity's ultimate purpose is in union with the one achieved through the emulation of divine virtues. However, this raises complex questions about the nature of virtues and their applicability to both humanity and divinity. While Plotinus grapples with these dilemmas, scholars like Mulla Sadra offer novel interpretations about the same concept but grounded in the principle of the Primacy of Existence. This work explores Plotinus' vision of a divine union and the challenges it poses to ethical and existential inquiry. Furthermore, it delves into the reception of Plotinus' ideas by Mulla Sadra, who offers novel insights into the concept of godlikeness. Through Sadra's lens, virtues are understood as dynamic manifestations of divine existence, leading to a deeper understanding of humanity's existential journey towards divine union.

Abstract It is often assumed that the Imamiyah and the Mu'tazila, known as "al-'adlyyah," collaborated closely in their theological development from the outset. Apart from questions of Imamat and Wilayah, there are purportedly few differences between their theological views. However, historical investigations reveal significant divergences both in content and methodology until the fourth century. From this point onward, they began to approach each other, particularly through the Imamiyah theological school in Baghdad, a convergence that continued into the eighth century with notable influences between the two doctrinal orientations. This article examines the anthropology from the Baghdad school in the fourth century to the Ḥillah school in the eighth century, focusing on how Shiite and Mu'tazilite views on human truth influenced each other during this period. Shiite thought is believed to have been significantly influenced by Mu'tazilite rationalists. Analysis indicates that Shiite theologians in Baghdad were influenced by Abu al-Huḏayl and the scholars of Ḥillah by Abu al-Husayn al-Baṣrī. The concept of human truth evolved from a materialistic perspective based on Abu al-Huḏayl's theory in the fifth century to another materialistic perspective based on Abu al-Husayn al-Baṣrī's theory in the seventh and eighth centuries.

Abstract This study aims to explore the hermeneutics of the word, focusing on the interpretive reading of the Quran, reflection on individual verses, and acting in accordance with this Holy Scripture. A methodology for reading is proposed that is significant for engaging in dialogue with the word of Allah. In doing so, it seeks to broaden the horizon concerning the Islamic understanding of revelation and to create appropriate approaches to it. This theory of understanding incorporates a practical way of life to inspire individuals toward nonviolent hermeneutical action. This introduction to the Quran provides a solid foundation for Quranic research on the one hand and for studies on Shi'a Islam, which remains largely unfamiliar in the Western world, on the other. The study, entirely conducted from the Shi'a Islamic perspective, aspires to contribute to establishing a "nonviolent hermeneutics" within the academic field, which could also foster a culture of nonviolent dialogue.